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How Much Did It Cost To Repair After The Dust Bowl

Written By Tuesday, April 5, 2022 Add Comment Edit

1930s period of severe dust storms in North America

Map of states and counties afflicted past the Dust Bowl between 1935 and 1938 originally prepared by the Soil Conservation Service. The well-nigh severely affected counties during this menses are colored .

The Dust Bowl was a menstruum of severe dust storms that greatly damaged the ecology and agriculture of the American and Canadian prairies during the 1930s; severe drought and a failure to apply dryland farming methods to preclude the aeolian processes (wind erosion) caused the phenomenon.[one] [ii] The drought came in 3 waves: 1934, 1936, and 1939–1940, merely some regions of the High Plains experienced drought weather for as many as 8 years.[3]

The Grit Bowl has been the subject area of many cultural works, notably the novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939) by John Steinbeck, the folk music of Woody Guthrie, and photographs depicting the atmospheric condition of migrants by Dorothea Lange, particularly the Migrant Mother.

Geographic characteristics and early history

With insufficient understanding of the ecology of the plains, farmers had conducted extensive deep plowing of the virgin topsoil of the Corking Plains during the previous decade; this had displaced the native, deep-rooted grasses that ordinarily trapped soil and moisture even during periods of drought and high winds. The rapid mechanization of farm equipment, especially small gasoline tractors, and widespread use of the combine harvester contributed to farmers' decisions to catechumen barren grassland (much of which received no more than 10 inches (~250 mm) of precipitation per year) to cultivated cropland.[4] During the drought of the 1930s, the unanchored soil turned to dust, which the prevailing winds blew away in huge clouds that sometimes blackened the sky. These choking billows of dust – named "blackness blizzards" or "blackness rollers" – traveled cantankerous country, reaching as far equally the Eastward Coast and striking such cities equally New York City and Washington, D.C. On the plains, they often reduced visibility to 3 ft (1 m) or less. Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma, to witness the "Black Sun" black blizzards of April 14, 1935; Edward Stanley, the Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press, coined the term "Dust Bowl" while rewriting Geiger's news story.[v] [half-dozen]

While the term "the Grit Bowl" was originally a reference to the geographical area affected by the dust, today it usually refers to the event itself (the term "Dirty Thirties" is also sometimes used). The drought and erosion of the Dust Basin afflicted 100,000,000 acres (400,000 kmtwo) that centered on the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma and touched next sections of New United mexican states, Colorado, and Kansas.[seven] The Dust Bowl forced tens of thousands of poverty-stricken families, who were unable to pay mortgages or grow crops, to abandon their farms, and losses reached $25 million per day by 1936 (equivalent to $470,000,000 in 2022).[8] [9] Many of these families, who were often known as "Okies" because then many of them came from Oklahoma, migrated to California and other states to find that the Groovy Depression had rendered economic weather in that location niggling better than those they had left.

The Dust Basin area lies principally west of the 100th summit on the High Plains, characterized past plains which vary from rolling in the north to flat in the Llano Estacado. Elevation ranges from ii,500 ft (760 one thousand) in the east to six,000 ft (1,800 m) at the base of the Rocky Mountains. The area is semiarid, receiving less than 20 in (510 mm) of rain annually; this rainfall supports the shortgrass prairie biome originally present in the area. The region is also prone to extended drought, alternate with unusual wetness of equivalent duration.[10] During wet years, the rich soil provides bountiful agricultural output, but crops fail during dry years. The region is also subject to high winds.[11] During early European and American exploration of the Bang-up Plains, this region was thought unsuitable for European-style agronomics; explorers called it the Bang-up American Desert. The lack of surface h2o and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement and agronomics.

The federal regime encouraged settlement and development of the Plains for agriculture via the Homestead Human action of 1862, offering settlers "quarter section" 160-acre (65 ha) plots. With the end of the Ceremonious War in 1865 and the completion of the Get-go Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, waves of new migrants and immigrants reached the Groovy Plains, and they greatly increased the acreage under cultivation.[12] [13] An unusually moisture flow in the Great Plains mistakenly led settlers and the federal government to believe that "rain follows the turn" (a popular phrase amid existent estate promoters) and that the climate of the region had inverse permanently.[14] While initial agricultural endeavors were primarily cattle ranching, the adverse outcome of harsh winters on the cattle, beginning in 1886, a curt drought in 1890, and full general overgrazing, led many landowners to increment the amount of land under cultivation.

Recognizing the claiming of cultivating marginal arid land, the The states government expanded on the 160 acres (65 ha) offered under the Homestead Human activity – granting 640 acres (260 ha) to homesteaders in western Nebraska nether the Kinkaid Deed (1904) and 320 acres (130 ha) elsewhere in the Great Plains under the Enlarged Homestead Act of 1909. Waves of European settlers arrived in the plains at the beginning of the 20th century. A return of unusually wet weather seemingly confirmed a previously held opinion that the "formerly" semiarid surface area could back up large-scale agriculture. At the same fourth dimension, technological improvements such equally mechanized plowing and mechanized harvesting made information technology possible to operate larger backdrop without increasing labor costs.

The combined furnishings of the disruption of the Russian Revolution, which decreased the supply of wheat and other commodity crops, and World War I increased agricultural prices; this demand encouraged farmers to dramatically increase tillage. For example, in the Llano Estacado of eastern New Mexico and northwestern Texas, the expanse of farmland was doubled between 1900 and 1920, then tripled again between 1925 and 1930.[13] The agricultural methods favored by farmers during this period created the conditions for big-scale erosion under sure environmental conditions.[iii] The widespread conversion of the state by deep plowing and other soil preparation methods to enable agronomics eliminated the native grasses which held the soil in identify and helped retain moisture during dry periods. Furthermore, cotton farmers left fields bare during winter months, when winds in the High Plains are highest, and burned the stubble as a means to control weeds prior to planting, thereby depriving the soil of organic nutrients and surface vegetation.

Drought and dust storms

Heavy black clouds of dust rising over the Texas Panhandle, Texas, c. 1936

After fairly favorable climatic conditions in the 1920s with expert rainfall and relatively moderate winters,[15] which permitted increased settlement and tillage in the Great Plains, the region entered an unusually dry out era in the summer of 1930.[16] During the next decade, the northern plains suffered four of their seven driest calendar years since 1895, Kansas iv of its twelve driest,[17] and the entire region south to West Texas[xviii] lacked whatsoever period of above-normal rainfall until record rains striking in 1941.[19] When severe drought struck the Great Plains region in the 1930s, information technology resulted in erosion and loss of topsoil because of farming practices at the time. The drought dried the topsoil and over time information technology became friable, reduced to a powdery consistency in some places. Without the indigenous grasses in place, the high winds that occur on the plains picked up the topsoil and created the massive dust storms that marked the Grit Basin period.[20] The persistent dry conditions caused crops to fail, leaving the plowed fields exposed to air current erosion. The fine soil of the Great Plains was hands eroded and carried due east past strong continental winds.

On November 11, 1933, a very potent grit storm stripped topsoil from desiccated South Dakota farmlands in one of a serial of severe dust storms that year. Outset on May nine, 1934, a strong, 2-day dust storm removed massive amounts of Great Plains topsoil in one of the worst such storms of the Dust Bowl.[21] The dust clouds blew all the way to Chicago, where they deposited 12 million pounds of dust (~ 5500 tonnes).[22] Two days later, the same tempest reached cities to the east, such as Cleveland, Buffalo, Boston, New York Urban center, and Washington, D.C.[23] That wintertime (1934–1935), red snow fell on New England.

On April xiv, 1935, known as "Black Sunday", 20 of the worst "black blizzards" occurred beyond the unabridged sweep of the Nifty Plains, from Canada southward to Texas. The dust storms caused extensive damage and appeared to turn the 24-hour interval to night; witnesses reported that they could non run across five feet in front of them at certain points. Denver-based Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma, that day. His story about Black Sunday marked the get-go appearance of the term Dust Basin; it was coined by Edward Stanley, Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press, while rewriting Geiger's news story.[5] [half-dozen]

Spearman and Hansford County have been literaly [sic] in a deject of grit for the past week. Ever since Friday of concluding week, at that place hasn't been a mean solar day pass just what the canton was beseieged [sic] with a blast of air current and dirt. On rare occasions when the wind did subside for a period of hours, the air has been so filled with dust that the town appeared to exist overhung by a fog deject. Considering of this long seige of dust and every edifice existence filled with information technology, the air has get stifling to breathe and many people have developed sore throats and dust colds as a result.

— Spearman Reporter, March 21, 1935[24]

Much of the farmland was eroded in the aftermath of the Dust Bowl. In 1941, a Kansas agricultural experiment station released a bulletin that suggested reestablishing native grasses by the "hay method". Developed in 1937 to speed up the process and increase returns from pasture, the "hay method" was originally supposed to occur in Kansas naturally over 25–40 years.[25] After much information analysis, the causal mechanism for the droughts can be linked to ocean temperature anomalies. Specifically, Atlantic Bounding main sea surface temperatures appear to have had an indirect event on the general atmospheric circulation, while Pacific sea surface temperatures seem to have had the about straight influence.[26] [27] [1]

Homo deportation

This catastrophe intensified the economic impact of the Great Depression in the region.

In 1935, many families were forced to leave their farms and travel to other areas seeking work because of the drought (which at that time had already lasted four years).[28] The abandonment of homesteads and financial ruin resulting from catastrophic topsoil loss led to widespread hunger and poverty.[29] Dust Bowl conditions fomented an exodus of the displaced from Texas, Oklahoma, and the surrounding Keen Plains to adjacent regions. More than than 500,000 Americans were left homeless. More than than 350 houses had to be torn down after one storm alone.[30] The severe drought and dust storms had left many homeless; others had their mortgages foreclosed by banks, or felt they had no selection but to abandon their farms in search of work.[31] Many Americans migrated west looking for work. Parents packed up "jalopies" with their families and a few personal belongings, and headed west in search of work.[32] Some residents of the Plains, especially in Kansas and Oklahoma, fell ill and died of grit pneumonia or malnutrition.[22]

Betwixt 1930 and 1940, approximately 3.five million people moved out of the Plains states.[34] In just over a twelvemonth, over 86,000 people migrated to California. This number is more than the number of migrants to that expanse during the 1849 gold rush.[35] Migrants abandoned farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, Colorado, and New United mexican states, but were oftentimes by and large referred to as "Okies", "Arkies", or "Texies".[36] Terms such equally "Okies" and "Arkies" came to exist known in the 1930s as the standard terms for those who had lost everything and were struggling the most during the Great Low.[37]

A migratory family from Texas living in a trailer in an Arizona cotton field

However, not all migrants traveled long distances; most migrants participated in internal state migration moving from counties that the Dust Bowl highly impacted to other less afflicted counties.[38] So many families left their farms and were on the move that the proportion between migrants and residents was virtually equal in the Great Plains states.[34]

An examination of Census Agency statistics and other records, and a 1939 survey of occupation by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of almost 116,000 families who arrived in California in the 1930s, showed that only 43 percent of Southwesterners were doing farm work immediately earlier they migrated. Nearly one-third of all migrants were professional or white-collar workers.[39] Specifically for farmers, while some of them had to take on unskilled labor when they moved, leaving the farming sector commonly led to greater social mobility in the time to come as there was a far greater likelihood that migrant farmers would after become into semi-skilled or high-skilled fields which paid better. Non-farmers experienced more downwardly occupational moves than farmers, but in most cases they were non meaning enough to bring them into poverty, because high-skilled migrants were about probable to experience a downward shift into semi-skilled piece of work. While semi-skilled work did not pay as well as loftier-skilled work, nearly of these workers were not impoverished. For the most part, by the end of the Dust Bowl the migrants mostly were improve off than those who chose to stay behind according to their occupational changes.[38]

After the Smashing Low concluded, some migrants moved back to their original states. Many others remained where they had resettled. About one-8th of California's population is of Okie heritage.[40]

Government response

The greatly expanded participation of government in state management and soil conservation was an important event from the disaster. Different groups took many dissimilar approaches to responding to the disaster. To identify areas that needed attending, groups such as the Soil Conservation Service generated detailed soil maps and took photos of the country from the sky. To create shelterbelts to reduce soil erosion, groups such as the Us Forestry Service's Prairie States Forestry Project planted copse on individual lands. Finally, groups like the Resettlement Administration, which later became the Farm Security Administration, encouraged small farm owners to resettle on other lands, if they lived in drier parts of the Plains.[1]

During President Franklin D. Roosevelt's get-go 100 days in office in 1933, his administration speedily initiated programs to conserve soil and restore the ecological balance of the nation. Interior Secretary Harold 50. Ickes established the Soil Erosion Service in Baronial 1933 under Hugh Hammond Bennett. In 1935, it was transferred and reorganized nether the Department of Agriculture and renamed the Soil Conservation Service. Information technology is now known as the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).[41]

Every bit office of New Bargain programs, Congress passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Human activity in 1936, requiring landowners to share the allocated government subsidies with the laborers who worked on their farms. Under the police force, "benefit payments were connected as measures for production control and income support, but they were now financed by direct Congressional appropriations and justified as soil conservation measures. The Human action shifted the parity goal from cost equality of agricultural commodities and the manufactures that farmers buy to income equality of farm and not-farm population."[42] Thus, the parity goal was to re-create the ratio between the purchasing ability of the net income per person on farms from agriculture and that of the income of persons non on farms that prevailed during 1909–1914.

To stabilize prices, the government paid farmers and ordered more than than half dozen one thousand thousand pigs to be slaughtered, as part of the Agronomical Aligning Act (AAA). It paid to accept the meat packed and distributed to the poor and hungry. The Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) was established to regulate crop and other surpluses. FDR in an address on May 14, 1935, to the AAA commented,

Let me make one other point articulate for the do good of the millions in cities who have to buy meats. Last year the Nation suffered a drought of unparalleled intensity. If at that place had been no Government program, if the old society had obtained in 1933 and 1934, that drought on the cattle ranges of America and in the corn belt would accept resulted in the marketing of sparse cattle, young hogs and the expiry of these animals on the range and on the farm, and if the one-time lodge had been in effect those years, we would have had a vastly greater shortage than we face today. Our program – we can bear witness it – saved the lives of millions of head of livestock. They are still on the range, and other millions of heads are today canned and ready for this state to eat.[43]

The FSRC diverted agricultural commodities to relief organizations. Apples, beans, canned beef, flour and pork products were distributed through local relief channels. Cotton goods were afterward included, to clothe needy.[44]

In 1935, the federal government formed a Drought Relief Service (DRS) to coordinate relief activities. The DRS bought cattle in counties which were designated emergency areas, for $fourteen to $20 a caput. Animals adamant unfit for homo consumption were killed; at the beginning of the program, more than 50 percent were and then designated in emergency areas. The DRS assigned the remaining cattle to the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) to be used in food distribution to families nationwide. Although it was difficult for farmers to give upwardly their herds, the cattle slaughter plan helped many of them avoid defalcation. "The regime cattle buying program was a blessing to many farmers, equally they could not afford to continue their cattle, and the authorities paid a amend toll than they could obtain in local markets."[45]

President Roosevelt ordered the Civilian Conservation Corps to plant the Great Plains Shelterbelt, a huge belt of more than 200 1000000 trees from Canada to Abilene, Texas to break the air current, concord h2o in the soil, and hold the soil itself in identify. The administration also began to educate farmers on soil conservation and anti-erosion techniques, including crop rotation, strip farming, profile plowing, terracing, and other improved farming practices.[46] [47] In 1937, the federal authorities began an aggressive campaign to encourage farmers in the Dust Bowl to adopt planting and plowing methods that conserved the soil. The regime paid reluctant farmers a dollar an acre to do the new methods. By 1938, the massive conservation attempt had reduced the amount of blowing soil by 65%.[44] The state yet failed to yield a decent living. In the fall of 1939, afterwards nearly a decade of dirt and dust, the drought concluded when regular rainfall finally returned to the region. The government still encouraged continuing the apply of conservation methods to protect the soil and ecology of the Plains.

At the cease of the drought, the programs which were implemented during these tough times helped to sustain a positive relationship between America'south farmers and the federal regime.[48]

The President'south Drought Commission issued a study in 1935 roofing the government'due south assistance to agriculture during 1934 through mid-1935: it discussed conditions, measures of relief, organization, finances, operations, and results of the government's help.[49] Numerous exhibits are included in this written report.

Long-term economic impact

In many regions, more 75% of the topsoil was blown away by the stop of the 1930s. State degradation varied widely. Bated from the brusk-term economic consequences caused by erosion, at that place were astringent long-term economic consequences caused by the Dust Basin.

By 1940, counties that had experienced the nearly meaning levels of erosion had a greater pass up in agricultural state values. The per-acre value of farmland declined past 28% in loftier-erosion counties and 17% in medium-erosion counties, relative to country value changes in low-erosion counties.[25] : 3 Fifty-fifty over the long-term, the agronomical value of the land often failed to recover to pre-Dust Bowl levels. In highly eroded areas, less than 25% of the original agricultural losses were recovered. The economy adjusted predominantly through large relative population declines in more-eroded counties, both during the 1930s and through the 1950s.[25] : 1500

The economic effects persisted, in part, because of farmers' failure to switch to more appropriate crops for highly eroded areas. Because the amount of topsoil had been reduced, it would take been more than productive to shift from crops and wheat to animals and hay. During the Depression and through at least the 1950s, there was limited relative aligning of farmland away from activities that became less productive in more-eroded counties.

Some of the failure to shift to more productive agronomical products may be related to ignorance virtually the benefits of changing land use. A second explanation is a lack of availability of credit, caused by the high rate of failure of banks in the Plains states. Because banks failed in the Dust Bowl region at a higher charge per unit than elsewhere, farmers could not get the credit they needed to obtain upper-case letter to shift crop production.[50] In addition, profit margins in either animals or hay were yet minimal, and farmers had fiddling incentive in the beginning to alter their crops.

Patrick Allitt recounts how fellow historian Donald Worster responded to his return visit to the Grit Bowl in the mid-1970s when he revisited some of the worst afflicted counties:

Capital-intensive agribusiness had transformed the scene; deep wells into the aquifer, intensive irrigation, the utilize of artificial pesticides and fertilizers, and giant harvesters were creating immense crops year later yr whether information technology rained or not. According to the farmers he interviewed, engineering had provided the perfect answer to old troubles, such of the bad days would not return. In Worster's view, by dissimilarity, the scene demonstrated that America'due south capitalist high-tech farmers had learned nothing. They were standing to work in an unsustainable way, devoting far cheaper subsidized energy to growing nutrient than the energy could give back to its ultimate consumers.[51]

In contrast with Worster's pessimism, historian Mathew Bonnifield argued that the long-term significance of the Dust Bowl was "the triumph of the human spirit in its chapters to endure and overcome hardships and reverses."[52]

Influence on the arts and culture

"Grit bowl farmers of west Texas in town", photograph past Dorothea Lange, June 1937.

The crisis was documented past photographers, musicians, and authors, many hired during the Bully Depression by the federal authorities. For instance, the Farm Security Administration hired numerous photographers to document the crisis. Artists such as Dorothea Lange were aided by having salaried piece of work during the Depression.[53] She captured what have go classic images of the dust storms and migrant families. Among her nigh well-known photographs is Destitute Pea Pickers in California. Mother of Seven Children,[53] which depicted a gaunt-looking adult female, Florence Owens Thompson, belongings iii of her children. This picture expressed the struggles of people caught past the Dust Bowl and raised awareness in other parts of the country of its reach and human price. Decades later, Thompson disliked the boundless apportionment of the photo and resented the fact she did not receive any money from its broadcast. Thompson felt it gave her the perception as a Dust Basin "Okie."[54]

The piece of work of independent artists was also influenced by the crises of the Grit Bowl and the Low. Author John Steinbeck, borrowing closely from field notes taken by Farm Security Assistants worker and author Sanora Babb,[55] wrote The Grapes of Wrath (1939) most migrant workers and farm families displaced by the Dust Bowl. Babb'south ain novel about the lives of the migrant workers, Whose Names Are Unknown, was written in 1939 merely was eclipsed and shelved in response to the success of Steinbeck'southward piece of work, and was finally published in 2004.[56] [57] [58] Many of the songs of folk vocalist Woody Guthrie, such every bit those on his 1940 album Dust Bowl Ballads, are about his experiences in the Dust Bowl era during the Great Depression when he traveled with displaced farmers from Oklahoma to California and learned their traditional folk and blues songs, earning him the nickname the "Grit Bowl Troubadour".[59]

Migrants also influenced musical civilization wherever they went. Oklahoma migrants, in particular, were rural Southwesterners who carried their traditional country music to California. Today, the "Bakersfield Audio" describes this blend, which developed afterward the migrants brought country music to the urban center. Their new music inspired a proliferation of country trip the light fantastic toe halls equally far due south equally Los Angeles.

The 2022 science fiction pic Interstellar features a ravaged 21st-century America which is again scoured by dust storms (caused by a worldwide pathogen affecting all crops). Along with inspiration from the 1930s crisis, director Christopher Nolan features interviews from the 2022 documentary The Dust Bowl to draw farther parallels.[60]

In 2022, Americana recording creative person Grant Maloy Smith released the album Dust Basin – American Stories, which was inspired by the history of the Dust Bowl.[61] In a review, the music magazine No Depression wrote that the album's lyrics and music are "as potent equally Woody Guthrie, as intense as John Trudell and dusted with the trials and tribulations of Tom Joad – Steinbeck and The Grapes of Wrath."[62]

Changes in agriculture and population on the Plains

Agricultural land and revenue boomed during Globe War I, but fell during the Groovy Depression and the 1930s.[63] [ verification needed ] The agricultural land that was worst affected by the Dust Bowl was sixteen 1000000 acres (6.five million hectares) of land by the Texas and Oklahoma panhandles. These twenty counties that the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Soil Conservation Service identified equally the worst wind-eroded region were home to the majority of the Swell Plains migrants during the Dust Basin.[64]

While migration from and between the Southern Great Patently States was greater than migration in other regions in the 1930s, the numbers of migrants from these areas had just slightly increased from the 1920s. Thus, the Grit Bowl and Not bad Depression did not trigger a mass exodus of southern migrants, it simply encouraged these migrants to go on moving where in other areas the Peachy Depression limited mobility due to economic issues, decreasing migration. While the population of the Dandy Plains did fall during the Dust Basin and Great Depression, the drop was not caused by extreme numbers of migrants leaving the Great Plains but because of a lack of migrants moving from exterior of the Great Plains into the region. [64]

See also

  • 1936 North American heat wave
  • Desertification
  • Goyder's Line – semiarid area of Australia
  • Global warming
  • List of environmental disasters
  • Monoculture
  • Ogallala Aquifer
  • Palliser'southward Triangle – semiarid area of Canada
  • Semi-arid climate
  • Tragedy of the commons
  • U.Southward. Route 66 – notable Dust Basin migration route to California
  • Navajo Livestock Reduction – simultaneous program to preclude overgrazing and erosion

References

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  35. ^ Worster, Donald. Dust Bowl – The Southern Plains in the 1930s, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 50
  36. ^ "Commencement Measured Century: Interview:James Gregory". PBS. Archived from the original on July eighteen, 2022. Retrieved March 11, 2007.
  37. ^ Worster (2004), Dust Basin, p. 45,
  38. ^ a b Long, Jason; Siu, Henry (2018). "Refugees from Grit and Shrinking Land: Tracking the Dust Bowl Migrants". The Journal of Economical History. 78 (four): 1001–1033. doi:10.1017/S0022050718000591. ISSN 0022-0507.
  39. ^ Gregory, Northward. James. (1991) American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture in California. Oxford University Press.
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  51. ^ Patrick Allitt, A Climate of Crisis: America in the Age of Environmentalism (2014) p 203
  52. ^ Allitt p 211, paraphrasing William Cronin's evaluation of Mathew Paul Bonnifield, Dust Bowl: Men, Dirt and Depression(1979)
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  58. ^ See:
    • Lanzendorfer, Joy, "The forgotten Dust Bowl novel that rivaled 'The Grapes of Wrath'" Archived December 28, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, Smithsonian.com, 2022 May 23.
    • "Sanora Babb" Archived March iv, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, The Dust Basin: a movie by Ken Burns, PBS.org (2012)
    • For the role of Tom Collins of the Farm Security Administration in Steinbeck'southward novel, see: John Steinbeck with Robert Demott, ed., Working Days: The Journals of The Grapes of Wrath, 1938–1941 (New York, New York: Penguin Books, 1990), pp. xxvii–xxviii Archived April 29, 2022, at the Wayback Motorcar, 33 (journal entry for 1938 June 24). Archived Apr 29, 2022, at the Wayback Car
  59. ^ Alarik, Scott. Robert Burns unplugged. Archived March 4, 2022, at the Wayback Automobile The Boston Globe, Baronial 7, 2005. Retrieved on December 5, 2007.
  60. ^ Rosenberg, Alyssa (November half dozen, 2022). "How Ken Burns' surprise office in 'Interstellar' explains the movie". The Washington Postal service. Archived from the original on November 8, 2022. Retrieved November 8, 2022.
  61. ^ Smith, Hubble (June one, 2022). "Kingman gets a mention on Dust Bowl anthology". Kingman Daily Miner. Archived from the original on October 10, 2022. Retrieved June eleven, 2022.
  62. ^ Apice, John (May 22, 2022). "Expressive Original Songs Steeped In the Dirt & Reality of the Dust Bowl-Depression Era". No Depression. Archived from the original on July vi, 2022. Retrieved June 11, 2022.
  63. ^ Hornbeck, Richard (2012). "The Enduring Bear on of the American Dust Basin: Brusque and Long-run Adjustments to Environmental Catastrophe". American Economic Review. 102 (four): 1477–1507. doi:10.1257/aer.102.4.1477. Archived from the original on August 19, 2022. Retrieved November nine, 2022.
  64. ^ a b Long, Jason; Siu, Henry (2018). "Refugees from Grit and Shrinking State: Tracking the Dust Bowl Migrants". The Journal of Economical History. 78 (4): 1001–1033. doi:x.1017/S0022050718000591. ISSN 0022-0507.

Bibliography

  • Bonnifield, Mathew Paul. (1979) Dust Bowl: Men, Dirt and Depression
  • Cunfer, Geoff. (2008) "Scaling the Dust Bowl" Archived February 26, 2022, at the Wayback Motorcar, Placing history: How maps, spatial data, and GIS are changing historical scholarship, ESRI Printing, Redlands.
  • Gregory, James Noble. American exodus: The dust bowl migration and Okie culture in California (Oxford University Printing, 1989)
  • Lassieur, Allison. (2009) The Dust Basin: An Interactive History Gamble Archived April 10, 2022, at the Wayback Machine Capstone Press, ISBN 1-4296-3455-three
  • Reis, Ronald A. (2008) The Dust Bowl Archived Apr 29, 2022, at the Wayback Car Chelsea House ISBN 978-0-7910-9737-iii
  • Sylvester, Kenneth M., and Eric Southward. A. Rupley, "Revising the Grit Bowl: High to a higher place the Kansas Grassland", Environmental History, 17 (July 2022), 603–33.
  • Worster, Donald 2004 (1979)Grit Basin: The Southern Plains in the 1930s Archived Apr 30, 2022, at the Wayback Machine (25. ceremony ed) Oxford University Printing. ISBN 0-19-517489-5
  • Woody Guthrie, (1963) The (Nearly) Complete Collection of Woody Guthrie Folk Songs, Ludlow Music, New York.
  • Alan Lomax, Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger, (1967) Hard-Hitting Songs for Hard-Hit People, Oak Publications, New York.
  • Timothy Egan (2006) The Worst Difficult Time Archived December 19, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, Houghton Mifflin Visitor, New York, hardcover. ISBN 0-618-34697-X.
  • Katelan Janke, (1935) Survival in the Storm: The Grit Basin Diary of Grace Edwards, Dalhart, Texas, Scholastic (September 2002). ISBN 0-439-21599-4.
  • Karen Hesse (paperback January 1999) Out of the Dust, Scholastic Signature. New York Get-go Edition, 1997, hardcover. ISBN 0-590-37125-8.
  • Sanora Babb (2004) Whose Names Are Unknown Archived October eleven, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-3579-3.
  • Sweeney, Kevin Z. (2016). Prelude to the Grit Bowl: Drought in the Nineteenth-Century Southern Plains Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Printing.

Documentary films

  • 1936 – The Plow That Bankrupt the Plains – 25 minutes, directed by Pare Lorentz
  • 1998 – Surviving the Dust Bowl – 52 minutes, season 10 episode of American Experience documentary tv serial
  • 2012 – The Dust Bowl – 240 minutes, 4 episodes, directed by Ken Burns

External links

  • Media related to Grit Basin at Wikimedia Commons
  • The Dust Basin photo collection
  • "The Dust Bowl", a PBS television receiver series by filmmaker Ken Burns
  • The Dust Basin (EH.Internet Encyclopedia)
  • Black Sunday, April 14, 1935, Dodge City, KS
  • The Bibliography of Aeolian Enquiry
  • Voices from the Dust Bowl: The Charles L. Todd and Robert Sonkin Migrant Worker Collection, 1940–1941 Library of Congress, American Folklife Center Online collection of archival sound recordings, photographs, and manuscripts
  • Farming in the 1930s (Wessels Living History Farm)
  • Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Civilisation – Dust Bowl
  • Dust, Drought, and Dreams Gone Dry out: Oklahoma Women in the Grit Bowl Oral History Projection, Oklahoma Oral History Research Program
  • Voices of Oklahoma interview with Frosty Troy. First person interview conducted on Nov 30, 2022 with Frosty Troy talking well-nigh the Oklahoma Grit Bowl. Original audio and transcript archived with Voices of Oklahoma oral history project.
  • Grit Bowl – Ken Burns playlist on YouTube
  • Dust Bowl – Ken Burns playlist on YouTube

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_Bowl

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